In most film scores, themes are usually associated with a single character. This is the case, for example, with the previous two themes examined in this blog series: those for Jill and Cheyenne. But the other prominent theme in Once Upon a Time in the West is actually associated with both the mysterious Harmonica (Charles Bronson) and the cold-blooded Frank (Henry Fonda). As Robert Cumbow describes in his book, The Films of Sergio Leone, this is an example of what he calls “theme sharing”, and this particular instance of it “represents not a character but a collision—not only the debt between the two men but also the one means of final resolution to which they have recourse.”

Of course, on one level, these characters do possess their own themes, Harmonica the wavering, unharmonized harmonica line, Frank the menacing, leaping melody usually played by an electric guitar. But in their most powerful statements in the film, these themes are combined into one, for example in the youngest McBain boy’s fatal meeting with Frank and his posse, or in the tavern where Cheyenne swings a lamp towards Harmonica, who sits in a dark corner, or indeed during Frank and Harmonica’s final showdown. The film music analysis presented here will focus on this particular version of the theme, as heard below in the cue titled “Man with a Harmonica”:

As noted in the previous posts of this series, Morricone’s highly recognizable style derives largely from his adherence to a relatively small group of musical techniques. And as we have seen, Morricone himself has drawn attention to his use of both timbre and intervals in his film music, especially for the films of Sergio Leone:

Certainly the theme [in general] is extremely important, even if I personally have always considered it of little significance. For this reason, especially in the first films of Leone but also … on many occasions afterward, I have attempted to distinguish it, to subtract it from its conventional function. In some cases I have augmented the result with timbre, in others with the pursuit of a theme made of intervals.

Orchestration

Like the other major themes in Once Upon a Time in the West, much of the impact of “Man with a Harmonica” stems from its colourful use of musical timbres. The cue opens with a solo on the harmonica, itself an unusual instrument for film scores of the time. But this opening gradually builds to the theme proper, which is announced with the aggressive sound of a type of electric guitar called a Fender Stratocaster. It is not merely the inclusion of these instruments that contributes to the unique sound of this cue but, more importantly, their combination with those of the traditional orchestra and, in the cue’s middle section, even a wordless choir.

Morricone and the “Micro-cell”

“Man with a Harmonica” certainly qualifies as a cue that Morricone composed as “a theme made of intervals.” And yet, it goes somewhat further than simply restating a certain interval throughout the theme. As musicologist and Morricone specialist Sergio Miceli writes,

Morricone’s non-film works form a large and increasingly widely performed part of his output. Many of them use his technique of “micro-cells”, a pseudo-serial approach often incorporating modal and tonal allusions, which, with its extreme reduction of compositional materials, has much in common with his film-music techniques.

If an interval describes the relationship between only two notes, we might define a micro-cell as going a step further and incorporating three notes. The difference between a micro-cell and a more traditional motif is that the micro-cell has no set rhythm, nor a prescribed order of its pitches. What remains constant is the relationships among the three notes, or more simply, the intervals they form with one another, which may occur right-side-up or upside-down (inverted). This technique has more in common with twentieth-century modernist music than film music, but Morricone imports it into his eclectic film music style, which is why Miceli describes it as a “pseudo-serial” approach (serial referring to twelve-tone music).

The First Section

In the Frank/Harmonica theme, the melody of the theme proper divides into two large sections, the first of which is longer and contains four short phrases (1:05-1:54 in the above recording), and the second containing five shorter phrases (1:54-2:35). In the first section, the opening phrase begins with the three-note fragment, A-E-B, giving the direct intervals of a perfect fifth (A-E) and a perfect fourth (E-B). But in a more long-range sense, we can measure the interval between the first and last note as well, which gives a major second. With these three intervals, Morricone forms the micro-cell from which he derives the rest of the theme’s melody:

Micro-cell of the Frank/Harmonica Theme

This micro-cell appears throughout the theme in various forms, each of which is shown beneath a square bracket in the following analysis and will be explained below:

The second phrase (at 1:18) begins with a prominent octave leap, which we might regard as a kind of enhanced repetition of a pitch. After all, in musical notation, all notes that are one or more octaves apart have the same letter name, suggesting that an octave leap represents another version of the same pitch (an idea called “octave equivalence”). In the theme, the intervals after the octave leap are a major second and a perfect fifth, forming another statement of the micro-cell. The perfect fourth, which may seem to be missing, occurs between the first and last notes of this micro-cell, A-E. Notice that the notes stated here, A-B-E, are a rearranged form of those in the initial micro-cell, A-E-B. Hence it is easy to hear how these phrases belong together as two forms of the same idea.

Even the third phrase (at 1:30) outlines a perfect fourth (now filled in with stepwise motion) and a perfect fifth, and the first and last notes span the micro-cell’s major second. In this case, the cell is also transposed, so the original A-E-B becomes E-A-D. Again, notice how the order of intervals are rearranged from the previous two statements: the first began with the perfect fifth, the second with a major second, and the third with the perfect fourth. It is almost as though Morricone is systematically shifting the micro-cell to keep it sounding fresh with each statement.

The fourth and final phrase of the theme’s first section (at 1:42) gives yet another statement of the micro-cell, only now the intervals of the fourth and fifth have been stretched by a step to reach a fifth and a sixth. Again, the phrase sounds cogently tied to what preceded it but with a new twist that allows larger, more dramatic intervals to conclude the theme’s first section in a musically satisfying way.

The Second Section

The first two phrases of the second section (at 1:54 and 2:01) begin like those of the first, but with the rhythms of the micro-cell now accelerated to twice their original speed. This gives a clear indication of a rise in tension here, a feeling augmented by Morricone’s addition of a fuller orchestration involving violins on the melody, entrance of the wordless choir, a militaristic rhythm hammered out by bass and snare drum, and numerous expressive dissonances in the inner voices created by the use of suspensions.

At the third phrase of the section (at 2:07), the music breaks out into a new use of the micro-cell, marked by a striking modulation to a new key (C major). Here, the cell is employed with more flexibility as the initial note is returned to before stating the third note. (This figure of moving stepwise to a note then returning back to the original is called a neighbour note, and is an extremely common melodic device in Morricone. Of course, such a simple figure is common in all tonal music, but it occurs with particular frequency in Morricone’s music, and hence can be considered one of his signature melodic devices). The fourth phrase (at 2:14) uses a similar neighbour note, but now in the opposite direction.

Notice that even the innocuous three-note lead-in to the fourth phrase (at 2:13-2:14) also states the micro-cell, though now with its last note (C) shifted to a higher octave. Had this C been set an octave lower, we would have had a version of the cell that we have already heard (in the third phrase of the first section). Once again, Morricone ensures we do not tire of so simple a melodic cell by endlessly varying its statements.

The fifth and final phrase of the section (at 2:19) involves a statement of the cell that is highlighted as the climax of the entire theme. Now the cell is stretched out over three bars as opposed to two like every other phrase in the section. Moreover, like the final statement of the first section, the intervals of the cell are enlarged by a step such that the rising perfect fifth and falling perfect fourth now become a rising minor sixth and falling diminished fifth. The rising minor sixth in particular is a dramatic and highly expressive interval, one that is often used to describe something tragic, perhaps the most famous example being the opening of Wagner’s prelude to Tristan und Isolde, which begins with the same interval (though played very softly):

Finally, the diminished fifth of the theme, which is the last interval of the micro-cell, is now filled in with gradually descending steps, as though moving towards an inevitable outcome. Musically, that outcome is the arrival of the final note of the theme proper, the tonic note of its key of A minor, which signifies resolution. Appropriately, this resolution is coordinated with the moment we first see Frank’s face in the film, which, in one of the most stunning instances of anti-type-casting in all of cinema, reveals the bad guy to be none other than Henry Fonda, the beloved hero of countless American western films.

Other Melodic Devices

The Turn Figure

In addition to the pervasive micro-cell, “Man with a Harmonica” illustrates several other melodic devices that are a regular part of Morricone’s style. Recall, for instance, that both Jill’s theme and Cheyenne’s theme made use of various forms of the turn figure:

In the Frank/Harmonica theme, Turn 1 appears as a link between the first and second phrases in the first section (at 1:16-1:17 and 1:14-1:42 in the recording), and between the first and second phrases in the second section (at 1:59-2:01). These figures are highlighted in the analysis below:

The 5-#4-5 Figure

The introduction to the cue begins with the lone harmonica line, which wavers between E, D#, and the occasional C as well. In the cue’s key of A minor, the E and D# are notes 5 and #4 of the scale. Traditionally, this kind of wavering between 5, #4, and back to 5 suggests something mysterious and perhaps even inscrutable, an appropriate expression for the character of Harmonica, whose story is revealed to the audience only gradually through progressively clearer flashbacks. No doubt, the connotations of mystery in the 5-#4-5 figure explain its appearance in other mystery-filled music like Hedwig’s theme from the Harry Potter films, and “Aquarium” from Saint-Säens’ Carnival of the Animals, both of which may be heard below:

In “Man with a Harmonica”, the sense of mystery is enhanced not only by the rhythmically free setting of the solo harmonica line, which does not suggest any sort of meter, but also by the heavy reverberation effect, which obscures the sound and gives it the impression of approaching from the distance, much like Harmonica’s blurry flashbacks in the film.

Ostinato

When instruments of the orchestra enter the cue, the three-note figure E-C-D# associated with Harmonica is repeated in a straight rhythm to become an ostinato. This regular repetition of notes clarifies the pulse of the cue but not yet its meter, which is hinted at by the long bass notes and finally confirmed with the entrance of the electric guitar. Once again, like Harmonica’s flashbacks in the film, the substance of this theme only gradually comes into focus as it proceeds.

Harmony

The first two phrases of the theme’s opening section are built on a bass line that begins on the tonic A and falls three steps to its dominant, E. When set in a minor key as it is here, this four-note pattern is referred to as a lament bass, because of its long association in classical music with expressions of grief and despair.

While Morricone does not employ the lament bass specifically in many of his film cues, its first three notes, descending by step from the tonic, recall the first three bass notes of the plagal thirds progression, which underlies the beginning of Jill’s theme and the B section of Cheyenne’s theme. The chords involved in Morricone’s setting of the lament bass move from the minor tonic down to the dominant chord in the progression i-v⁶-VI-V, the first three of which are essentially the same as those of the plagal thirds progression.Thus, all three of the major themes in the film share a common musical element that helps to identify Morricone’s style despite the drastically different emotions each theme conveys.

Conclusion

Through this three-part series on Ennio Morricone’s classic score for Once Upon a Time in the West, we have seen that the composer’s highly recognizable style relies on the repetition of a relatively small number of musical techniques. Melodically, there is the use of the turn figure, the anticipation, and themes “made of intervals” such as the sixth in Jill’s theme, the unison in Cheyenne’s theme, and the combination of fifth, fourth, and second in the “micro-cell” of the Frank/Harmonica theme. Harmonically, Morricone often draws on the simple primary progression of I-IV-V-I (as in Jill’s theme), the Dorian mode (as in Cheyenne’s theme), the plagal thirds progression of I-vi-IV-I (as in both Jill’s and Cheyenne’s theme) and the closely related lament bass, which supports chords similar to the plagal thirds. And of course, the use of unusual timbres in the orchestration is another key aspect of Morricone’s style, one that, in combination with the other stylistic elements, remains a distinctive trait.

In all of these ways, Morricone has succeeded in creating a style that not only remains identifiable as a compositional fingerprint, but that also fulfills the expressive needs of a film in a manner that is at once effective, memorable, and unique in the history of film scores.

“Cheyenne’s theme” from Once Upon a Time in the West is another example of Ennio Morricone’s economical use of melodic and harmonic materials, and unusual choice of instrumentation that help bestow his music with a very distinctive sound. The following film music analysis will demonstrate how the theme incorporates some of the same ideas from Jill’s theme and includes some others that are commonly found in Morricone’s film scores.

Within the film, Cheyenne’s theme is heard in two forms. The first sounds when he is introduced as he enters a tavern. This form of the theme is fairly fast-paced, eerie, and tension-filled, appropriate expressions for a character who has, thus far, only been shown to be a dangerous man who is skilled with a gun. All other instances of the theme make use of its second form, a more moderately-paced version that accompanies Cheyenne in various other situations. It is this form of the theme that is analyzed below.

Melody

Cheyenne’s theme is structured as an ABA form in which the final B and A sections are reiterated twice. Below is the entire theme along with the timestamp for each of its sections:

0:05 – A, 0:25 – B, 0:47 – Return of A, 1:06 – B, 1:28 – Return of A, 1:47 – B, 2:09 – Return of A

After an introduction announcing the theme’s sauntering accompaniment figure, the opening A section enters, comprising two identical four-bar phrases. These phrases state a rhythmic motive that, with only slight variations, is the basis of each phrase in the theme, demonstrating one of the theme’s many musical economies.

Recall Morricone’s claim that, in the early Sergio Leone films, he would sometimes write “a theme of intervals”. As we saw with Jill’s theme, this statement holds true in the theme’s prominent use of the interval of the sixth. Cheyenne’s theme may not seem to highlight any particular interval since it is based almost entirely on repeated notes. But repeated notes are themselves a type of interval – the unison. Hence, Morricone is employing much the same compositional technique, saturating the theme with a single type of interval. In this case, the combination of the unisons and moderate tempo endows the theme with a relaxed character that befits the generally less intense role Cheyenne plays in the film (frequently as a comic relief).

In terms of melodic devices, Morricone once again draws on the figure of the turn. In the last analysis, we saw that there are six types of turn depending on whether the figure is inverted or omits its first or last note:

Cheyenne’s theme integrates two turn figures in its opening phrase that overlap with one another:

And the B section concludes with one of the abbreviated forms, strengthening its already close melodic relationship to the A section through the many repeated notes:

These turn figures not only create interest in the melodic line through their contrast from the unison intervals, but they also sculpt the theme into something distinctly Morriconean.

Harmony

Keys and Scales

The opening A section of Cheyenne’s theme is composed of a repeated three-chord progression: A minor, D major, and again A minor. Had this theme been set in the key of A minor, the second chord would have been a D minor chord. But the melody’s turn first figure rises up to F# instead creates a D major chord and renders the theme’s underlying scale a Dorian mode on A, which is like minor but with a raised sixth degree:

This use of a major chord where one would normally expect a minor allows the phrase to alternate between “negative” minor and “positive” major chords, suggesting the moral ambiguity of Cheyenne’s character: on the one hand, he is an outlaw who at the start of the film kills several police officers in order to escape his convoy and gain freedom as a fugitive. On the other hand, he aids Jill in her quest to ward off the killer Frank and prevent her newly inherited property from falling into the clutches of the land tycoon Morton. In addition to bearing a resemblance to the plagal thirds progression of Jill’s theme (I-vi-IV-I), the Dorian plagal progressions between major IV and i are also a key ingredient of Morricone’s main themes to Leone’s three earlier westerns, where moral ambiguity is a prominent aspect of the main character, Clint Eastwood’s “man with no name”. Listen, for instance, to the first three chords of the main theme to The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, a clear example of a i-IV-i progression, and note especially the major chord sandwiched between two minor chords:

The B section begins with a pickup that uses another D major chord, now as the dominant of G major, into which key the music pivots and remains for the entire section. Taken together, then, the A and B sections take the idea of minor-major contrast that we hear in the A section’s plagal progressions and apply it to entire key areas. In terms of expression, the major-key foundation of the B section adds a certain poignancy to the theme as it seems to suggest something of Cheyenne’s softer, altruistic side whereas the minor-chord emphasis of the A section is suggestive of his harder, more rugged exterior. Also, the A Dorian mode of the A section and the G major key of the B section are actually two forms of the same musical scale, just beginning on different notes:

Hence, in addition to their obvious similarities in melody, accompaniment, and scoring, the A and B sections’ use of the same basic scale implies that the contrasting emotional expressions are two sides of a single personality.

Harmonic Progression

The B section is based on a single harmonic progression of eight chords in G major:

Notice that the progression passes through the chords of I, vi, IV, and ii, all of which are in their strongest form by being in root position. In other words, these chords stand out more than the others by sounding more stable, like stations along a train’s journey. In between each of these chords is a less stable, or “passing”, chord that sounds like it needs to resolve. Thus, the progression sounds like a filled-in form of I-vi-IV-ii, which is known as a descending thirds progression. Recall that the A section of Jill’s theme was based on the plagal thirds progression, I-vi-IV-I, which was also filled in with passing chords and a stepwise bass line. The two progressions are therefore close relatives of one another and not only create a subtle link between the themes for Jill and Cheyenne, but also demonstrate another way in which Morricone draws on a relatively small group of musical devices to define his very distinctive style.

The final chord in this progression, V in G major, produces an unfinished type of cadence called a half cadence, which here closes off the entire B section. But notice that this chord is another D major chord, this time moving directly into the return of the A section, which begins with the familiar A minor chord that starts the theme. Just as the D major chord brought us into the B section, Morricone now employs it again to take us back to the A section. With this move back into the A section, we realize that the D major chord also functions as the major IV chord in the A Dorian mode on which the A section is based. Thus, not only is the chord an appropriate choice to set up a sense of expectation due to its unfinished quality in either the G major of the B section or the A Dorian of the A section, but it also leads us back into the i-IV-i plagal progressions of the A section without introducing any new harmonies. This is Morricone’s musical economy at its finest.

Harmonically and melodically, the return of A section is a literal repeat of the initial A section, but with one important change in its final iteration. Just before the last chord of the section, the music breaks off for a full bar of rest. The need for resolution to that last chord creates a “pregnant” pause that brings with it a feeling of great anticipation, as though we are holding our breath, waiting for something to happen. In the film, this pause is coordinated with several of Cheyenne’s actions, including delivering a punchline, creating a moment of suspense, or even keeling over in death. And sounding after two identical iterations of the B and return of A sections, Morricone’s pause brings an unexpected reprieve from the theme’s phrase structure – a departure from his musical economy becomes an effective way of closing the theme.

Orchestration

As we saw with the analysis of Jill’s theme, Morricone himself has stated that

“I have always believed that the inventive use of tone color is one of a film composer’s most important means of expression.”

The unusual but skilfully blended orchestration of Cheyenne’s theme is an inspired testament to Morricone’s words. Right from the opening accompaniment figure, a double bass plucks out the “moseying” bass notes, and a wood block provides the clip-clop sound imitating a horse’s hooves. The strummed chords are played by an acoustic guitar doubled by a harp that is quickly muted by the hand (known as étouffée technique), and the theme’s melody is announced in the unusual combination of banjo and honky-tonk piano. Upon reaching the return of A section, however, Morricone adds his favoured sound of a male whistler (Alessandro Alessandroni), hence distinguishing the initial A from its return by minimal means. While the guitar, wood block, and whistling leave no doubt in our mind that this a cowboy theme, the overall synthesis of sounds produces a unique effect that bears the mark of a distinctly Morriconean orchestration.

Conclusion

Like Jill’s theme, Cheyenne’s theme is a good example of both Morricone’s adherence to a small musical palette of melody, harmony, and phrase structure, as well as his flair for highly original orchestrations. Its melody uses a single rhythmic motive throughout the theme, draws on the turn figure, and is constructed largely of unisons (repeated notes) that demonstrate the composer’s technique of writing “a theme of intervals”. Harmonically, the theme incorporates plagal progressions, minor-major contrast in both its chords and keys, the descending thirds progression, and two forms of exactly the same scale. And the orchestration almost completely eschews instruments of standard orchestral fare in favour of a more distinctive, and distinctively cowboy-like, combination. Taken as a whole, these many elements fuse together and coalesce into a highly recognizable style that could only have emerged from the pen of Ennio Morricone.

Coming soon… Morricone’s Once Upon a Time in the West (Part 3 of 3): Frank/Harmonica’s theme.

Ennio Morricone has one of the most distinctive sounds in all of film music, a highly unusual trait in a business where the composer is generally a musical chameleon, writing in different styles to suit different films. But in his film themes, Morricone tends to draw upon a relatively limited palette for melody and harmony, hence giving his music a very recognizable sound. And yet, it is not as if all of his scores sound the same. What tends to separate one from the next is his unique orchestrations. Indeed, in a translated volume of lectures by Morricone and musicologist Sergio Miceli, Morricone remarks that

“I have always believed that the inventive use of tone color is one of a film composer’s most important means of expression.”

And in discussing the main title cues for the “dollars” films, he notes that he prioritizes tone color even above melody:

“Melody is not so important. … If you take away the melody from all my pieces of this or other types, the piece still will remain … on its own feet. But the theme helps the director and serves the public. Perhaps I am deceiving myself by thinking that while following the theme, people also assimilate and appreciate the instrumental solutions.”

While Morricone’s colorful orchestrations are obvious in his scores, his frequent melodic and harmonic devices are less so. This and the following two posts will provide film music analyses that examine these devices in his themes for Once Upon a Time in the West, another Leone western that followed soon after the “dollars” trilogy. I begin with Jill’s theme, or what is generally referred to as the film’s main theme. Below is a recording of the complete cue:

The Introduction

Jill’s theme falls into two sections according to the melodic material: an introduction and a main theme, the latter divided into a scheme of ABAA. The introduction comprises a two-phrase melody stated twice. Morricone immediately reveals his penchant for unusual scorings as he sets the first statement for harpsichord and vibraphone accompanied by the cello. The melody here is constructed almost entirely out of one of Morricone’s favorite melodic devices: the anticipation, which states a note twice successively, first on a weak beat then on a strong beat:

Harmonically, the introduction is based on a very simple progression, I-IV-V-I, or what might be called the primary progression since it is one of the most basic progressions in all of music (see example below). Its simplicity may perhaps evoke Jill’s desire to live a simple life out west with her husband Brett McBain after having moved from New Orleans.

The second statement of the introduction is considerably warmer in tone as the middle registers become filled out, the rich sound of the alto flute being added to the melody and the string section to the accompaniment.

The Main Theme

First Statement of A

Once again, Morricone’s unique sense of scoring comes to the fore in the A section with a broad new melody sung by a wordless soprano (Edda Dell’Orso, who sang for several other Morricone scores, perhaps most notably for “The Ecstasy of Gold” in The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly). As an entirely human instrument, the voice lends the music a poignant quality that fits well with the tragic circumstances that Jill finds herself in. And its wordlessness in this case makes its impact even more direct as it is treated as a purely musical sound rather than a vehicle for a text.

While the melody of this section may seem fairly traditional, it nevertheless bears “Morriconean” trademarks. As the composer himself has said,

“Certainly the theme [in general] is extremely important, even if I personally have always considered it of little significance. For this reason, especially in the first films of Leone but also … on many occasions afterward, I have attempted to distinguish it, to subtract it from its conventional function. In some cases I have augmented the result with timbre, in others with the pursuit of a theme made of intervals.”

“A theme made of intervals” describes many of Morricone’s themes. In the case of Jill’s theme, the interval of the sixth is especially prominent as it begins the A theme and is stated four times within its eight bars:

This interval has a long association with love and feminine beauty in classical music, the opening of Liszt’s Liebestraum being a prime example:

Liszt Liebestraum

In the context of Once Upon a Time in the West, the association is especially apt and adds to the poignancy of the theme by suggesting the love Jill feels for her dead husband.

Another Morriconean trait of this section is its reliance on a melodic figure known as the turn, which involves beginning on a note, rising a step and returning, then falling a step and returning. In addition, this figure may appear in inverted form or may omit its first or last note. It may therefore take the following six forms:

This figure appears in a vast number of Morricone themes, for example at the very opening of “Gabriel’s Oboe” from The Mission (starting from 0:16):

The speed of the figure may vary but its appearance is always unmistakable. In Jill’s theme, a turn enters immediately after the opening sixth and at two other locations in its brief eight-bar length:

The melodic figures discussed so far—the anticipation and the turn—both appear in many other of Morricone’s themes and with entirely different emotional expressions. Thus, it seems that these figures are not wedded to a particular dramatic situation and are simply a part of Morricone’s style.

Harmonically, the first half of this section’s theme sounds a progression that moves through four chords, I-vi-IV-I, with intervening chords between the first two pairs. This progression is essentially a form of I-IV-I, or what is called a “plagal” progression, but with the insertion of the vi chord, which creates a line of descending thirds in the bass. For this reason, I call it the plagal thirds progression, and it is one that appears in a great many of Morricone’s themes. Typically, this progression fills in one or both of those thirds with stepwise motion to create an even smoother stepwise line in the bass, as there is here:

Perhaps through its stepwise bassline, its simple pattern of chords in descending thirds, and its alternation of major and minor chords, the progression has a profundity that suggests the expression of one’s deepest and most intimate emotions. Hence Morricone tends to employ it in scenes that expose a character’s tender side, as in “Ness and His Family” from The Untouchables and the flashback scenes (main theme) from Duck, You Sucker! (A Fistful of Dynamite).

The Untouchables

Duck, You Sucker! (A Fistful of Dynamite) (from 1:29)

As seen in the previous score example, the second half of this section’s theme reiterates the plagal thirds progression in a slightly varied form, vi-iii-IV-I, in which the initial I chord is omitted and a iii chord is inserted between the vi and IV,  as in (I)-vi-(iii)-IV-I. Thus, the deeply emotional quality of the harmony is allowed to continue throughout the eight bars of this section’s theme.

B Section (Bridge)

Structurally, this brief five-bar passage serves as a contrast to the A theme in order that it may sound fresh again upon its return immediately afterward. Notably, the melody and harmony draw on what has already occurred, though in varied form. All five bars make use of the anticipation figure in the melody, and the last two bars suggest the primary progression of I-IV-V-I (the last I chord begins the return of the A theme):

Even in its short span, this bridge section rises to a stirring climax to Jill’s theme that, in the film, corresponds to the crane shot that reveals the bustling town in which Jill has arrived. Musically, the climax is suitably placed as it provides an emotional high point before quickly dwindling and allowing us to take a metaphorical “breath” before returning to the A theme.

Second Statement of A

Naturally, the scoring of the A theme is altered upon its return, now with the melody in the strings, in a higher register, and accompanied by wordless choir for a grander effect. In terms of harmony, the theme is the same as before but with one important change: the final two bars of the eight-bar theme now add the V (dominant) chord at the cadence, providing a satisfying sense of resolution and closure that was not there before:

The final IV-V-I is then reiterated with a more conclusive end to the melody. Notice that this progression is in fact the primary progression we heard in the introduction and bridge sections (though with the initial chord omitted). Thus, Morricone is once again drawing on previous material and retaining an economical palette of melodic and harmonic devices in the cue.

Third Statement of A

As in many popular songs, the final (in this case, third) statement of the theme is transposed up a semitone, lending it a greater energy than before, a quality that Morricone emphasizes through its scoring with a lusher orchestration that includes both the strings and wordless soprano in addition to the choir and orchestra. Immediately after this statement, Morricone adds a two-bar tag with the chords IV-I, a simplified form of the plagal thirds progression that brings the entire cue to a convincing close.

Conclusion

To summarize, unlike most film composers, Ennio Morricone tends to draw upon a relatively small set of melodic and harmonic devices that recur throughout his film music. These devices give his music a very consistent sound that renders it highly recognizable even though the orchestration can vary drastically from film to film, or even cue to cue. In Jill’s theme, the main melodic devices were the anticipation and turn figures, and the main harmonic devices the primary progression (I-IV-V-I) and the plagal thirds progression (I-vi-IV-I). Perhaps it is Morricone’s generally narrow set of melodic figures that leads him to dismiss melody as unimportant to his conception of film scoring. In other words, because his melodies draw from a relatively small group of figures, he may feel that one figure is as good as another. Given the beauty and seeming perfection of the melody of Jill’s theme, however, it is difficult to imagine other figures working just as well.

Coming soon… Morricone’s Once Upon a Time in the West (Part 2 of 3): Cheyenne’s Theme

Miklós Rózsa won his third Academy Award for Best Music with the 1959 epic Ben-Hur. The music is often touted as Rózsa’s best film score and one of the finest in Hollywood’s history, in part due to “Rózsa’s ability to write in a contemporary musical idiom while maintaining a direct emotional appeal to general audiences,” as Roger Hickman observes in his book on the score for Ben-Hur. At the same time, Hickman points out that “in many respects, Rózsa’s music for Ben-Hur also represents the end of the Golden Age of Hollywood film music.”

Considering that Rózsa was a major figure in Hollywood’s Golden Age (and thereafter), it is no surprise that his score for Ben-Hur­ retains several practices from that era such as scoring for a large orchestra, the use of leitmotifs, and thematic transformation. The film music analysis below will examine thematic transformation in three prominent leitmotifs from the film: those for Esther (or the love theme), friendship, and hatred.

Esther / Love Theme

This theme is a leitmotif for both Esther and the love between her and Judah Ben-Hur. It is first heard when Esther is introduced as she elegantly descends a staircase while Judah looks admiringly upon her. In this form, the theme has a warmly romantic feel with its scoring for strings, slow rhythmic motion, and emphasis on the positive sound of major chords, all of which confirm the deep-seated love Esther and Judah have for one another (hear up to 0:47):

Later in the film, when Judah finally returns home after four years, he awaits Esther’s arrival in the very room where they proclaimed their love for one another. Here, the love theme’s character takes on a more apprehensive and lonesome quality with the melody sounded delicately in the alto flute overtop of a light tremolo accompaniment in the strings, as though to suggest Judah’s fluttering heart as he wonders whether Esther still loves him. Although this scoring remains as Esther enters the room, upon her reminiscence to her and Judah’s loving goodbye with the line “but now it seems as if only yesterday…”, the theme becomes warmer and more sure-footed. The tremolo disappears and the scoring returns to the romantic strings, indicating not only that Esther’s feelings for Judah are as they were before he left, but also Judah’s comfort in hearing this reassuring news. Here are these versions of the theme:

Only minutes later, the conversation between Esther and Judah turns to Judah’s former friend Messala, now a commanding officer of the Roman legion who sent Judah to be a galley slave and apprehended his mother and sister. At this point, another altered form of the love theme enters, this time to suggest how Judah and Esther’s love will be negatively affected by Judah’s hatred of Messala. Just as Esther looks concernedly at Judah and is about to utter Messala’s name, we hear growling, dissonant chords in the brass, which suggest the hatred Esther knows Judah feels. Then a distinctive figure (musically speaking, a “turn” figure) from the love theme appears repeatedly overtop, even obsessively, as though Judah’s fixation on revenge will destroy his relationship with Esther. Also, these figures are accompanied by a slowly descending chromatic line, again implying the negative effects this emotion will have, and perhaps even Esther’s own “sinking feeling” about Judah’s hatred. This version of the theme occurs below:

The Friendship and Hatred Themes

Introduction of the Themes

These two themes and their transformations, particularly that of the friendship theme, musically describe the relationship between Judah and Messala and are given clear statements in their normal form before being transformed. At the start of the film, the two are delighted to revitalize their close friendship from childhood. The music here participates by announcing the friendship leitmotif, which is based almost entirely on the positive sound of major chords warmly scored in the sustained strings in a pleasing middle register:

Before long, however, Messala asks Judah to inform on any Jews who are opposed to the Roman Empire. When Judah refuses, Messala gives him an ultimatum: either he is for Messala or he is against him. After Judah is forced to admit, “if that is the choice, then I am against you,” we hear the hatred leitmotif, a theme that depicts this emotion through its dissonant harmony, dark colouring of the Phrygian mode, the melody’s low, sinister register in the cellos and basses, and the aggressive sound of muted trumpets in the accompaniment:

After the hatred theme is immediately repeated with the melody in the violins, Judah returns home to his mother and sister, and relays Messala’s attempt to extract the names of dissenters from him. At this point, the music wavers between the friendship and hatred themes. On the heels of the hatred theme, for example, the friendship theme reappears for two statements but now lacks its major-chord support, instead beginning with the dissonant interval of the tritone against the bass. Two statements of the hatred theme then return essentially in its original guise before yielding once more to the friendship theme, which is now harmonized with melancholic minor chords. Such quick alternations between the two themes, along with the transformation of the friendship theme, suggest an erratic emotional state in Judah, one in which his strong sense of friendship for Messala is being poisoned by his new-found hatred. Hear these versions of the themes below:

The Death of Messala

After the famous chariot race in which Messala is fatally injured while trying to sabotage Judah’s chariot, Judah comes to visit Messala on his death bed. While we might expect the hatred theme to accompany this scene, it is actually the friendship theme that makes an appearance. Indeed, when Messala says to Judah, “triumph complete, Judah. The race won. The enemy destroyed,” Judah replies “I see no enemy.” The use of the friendship theme accords with this magnanimous statement better than the hatred theme would have. Even so, the friendship theme is transformed by its slower tempo, its harmonization with funereal minor chords, and its scoring, which is now in the low register of the violins and violas, doubled by the cellos and basses, with sustained chords in the horns. Thus, in its scoring, the theme has taken on aspects of the hatred theme, suggesting the devastating toll the hatred between the two men has had on their friendship. Listen below:

The Crucifixion Scene

This scene presents the final transformations of the friendship and hatred themes in the film. As Christ is being nailed to and raised up on the cross, we hear the hatred theme. But when Judah enters the scene and beholds the crucifixion, we hear the same transformation of the friendship theme we heard with Messala’s death, but with one important change. This time, the tail end of the hatred theme is inserted as a repeating motif in the low trombones between the notes of the friendship theme. The use of these themes at all in this scene is surprising since Messala is no longer in the film at this point. It is possible, however, to hear the two themes as “broadening” in their associations, from the personal relationship of Judah and Messala to the relationship of Christ to the Romans and even humanity in general. The hatred theme, for example, can easily be understood as applying to the Romans and their hatred of Christ. Similarly, the transformed friendship theme could well represent the consequences Christ faces due to hatred of his teachings of a sort of friendship among all people, or more specifically, of a love and tolerance of others. At the same time, since Christ seeks to absolve the world of its sins through his own suffering and death, the simultaneous use of both themes in this scene suggests the toxic effect of hatred on the world’s friendships generally. This highly negative expression allows the “heavenly” Christ theme that ends the scene (and returns to end the film) to enter as though from the darkest of depths, the musical equivalent of a salvation. Hear the hatred theme, then its combination with the friendship theme below from 1:03:18:

Conclusion

Thematic transformation of leitmotifs was one of the central features of film scores in the Classical Hollywood style. Miklós Rózsa, who began scoring films in the Classical Hollywood era, continued to draw on many of these features into the post-Classical era (after 1950), thematic transformation being one example. Perhaps the greatest advantage of this technique is its ability to follow characters’ developments and clarify their changing emotional states throughout the course of a film. In Ben-Hur, the technique was particularly effective since it allowed for an enhanced understanding of Judah’s relationships to the two other characters with whom he interacts with the most—Esther and Messala.

Coming soon… Themes in Ennio Morricone’s Once Upon a Time in the West (Part 1 of 3)

Erich Korngold’s music for the The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) remains one of his most admired and enduring film scores. Indeed, the score was awarded the Oscar for Best Original Score and is one of the best examples of music written in the style of the studio era of the 1930s and 40s, or what is known as the Classical Hollywood era.

In large part, the filmmaking style of Classical Hollywood revolved around coordinating the filmic elements to present the narrative with as much clarity as possible. Film scores of the era aided in this goal through such techniques as leitmotifs (themes, especially for the principal characters), sudden loud chords at intense moments (known as “stingers”), and musical imitations of physical gestures onscreen (called “Mickey Mousing” for obvious reasons).

The leitmotif technique, however, does not consist merely of sounding the same form of a theme each time a character appears onscreen. On the contrary, over the course of a film, most leitmotifs undergo some kind of variation in order to reflect physical, psychological, or emotional changes of a character at various points in the narrative. When applied to places and objects, the variations might suggest a character’s reaction to the place or object, or may simply be a guide as to how the viewer ought to interpret a scene. This process, called thematic transformation, is an important part of how film music is used and certainly applies to Korngold’s Robin Hood, as shown in the following film music analysis of two of its most prominent leitmotifs, those for the Merry Men and Robin himself.

The Merry Men’s Leitmotif

Initial Form

This is the leitmotif we hear at the very start of the film over the main titles. Its setting as a march aptly depicts the military prowess of the merry men, and yet its jaunty major key simultaneously reflects the men’s cheerful spirit and depiction as the “good guys”.

Here it is in the main titles (up to 0:56):

Waltz

While this form of the leitmotif returns in the film when the men ambush Sir Guy and his party in Sherwood Forest, it is also subjected to some transformations. For example, when the men are preparing a grand feast on the spoils of the ambush, we now hear the Merry Men’s leitmotif in triple time as the introduction to a graceful waltz that suggests the celebratory atmosphere of the event:
 

Disguise

Later, the men approach Nottingham Castle disguised as the entourage of the Bishop of the Black Canons, who has been coerced into following Robin’s plan. Here, the Merry Men leitmotif appears in a threatening minor key to suggest the situation’s potential danger to the men. The leitmotif is also supported by the fifth note of the scale (the dominant) instead of the first note (the tonic) as it was at the film’s opening. This subtle change adds a sense of anticipation to the scene as dominants usually suggest that a resolution to the tonic is nearing with every passing beat. Hear these changes below:

Once the men are about to enter the castle’s interior, we hear the leitmotif once more in a minor key, but with yet another change: the melody is now pared down to a mere outline of the Merry Men tune. While it remains recognizable, its relationship to the original tune is somewhat hidden, just as the Merry Men themselves are in disguise in the scene. Hear this in the above clip from 1:53.

Robin’s Leitmotif

Initial Form

This theme undergoes several transformations throughout the film. The first time we hear it, it accompanies a close-up of Robin’s face, clearly associating that character with the music, as is typical of Classical Hollywood scores. Here is that version of the theme:
 

Heroic/Danger

When Robin first enters the castle, he is carrying on his shoulders a dead deer he took the blame for killing in order to save Much from being arrested by Sir Guy. Robin enters the room brazenly, knocking down two guards with the deer and leisurely sauntering in. At the same time, the situation is full of danger as he is completely surrounded by his enemies. This mixture of confidence and peril is indicated musically through the leitmotif’s militaristic opening figure (a rising fourth, suggesting something powerful) and through the unusual string of three chords that follows the figure (chromatic chords, suggesting the danger and precariousness of the situation), which are also given a confident, sure-footed rhythm. Here is that version of the theme:
 

Romantic Longing

Later in the film, as Robin and Marian develop their love for each other, Robin secretly scales the wall of the castle to Marian’s chamber to meet her and declare his love. As this scene begins, we hear Robin’s theme, but this time it is divested of its heroic quality. Instead we hear it played softly and lyrically in the strings, which lends it a romantic sound. Even more prominently, the harmony of the theme has now been transformed into a single chord, one that is much more dissonant than the heroic chords we heard before. This dissonant chord is called a half-diminished seventh chord and it’s one that became famous with the opening of the prelude to Wagner’s opera Tristan und Isolde. Because the chord has a mysterious quality and yet still requires some kind of resolution to its dissonance, it is a fitting musical symbol of Tristan and Isolde’s infinite yearning in their ill-fated romantic love. Here is the opening of the Tristan prelude, the half-diminished seventh chord entering at 0:10:

Now hear the same chord (though transposed) in Robin’s theme at the start of the love scene:

With the Tristan prelude as a conceptual backdrop, it becomes clear that the transformation of Robin’s theme indicates his romantic longing to be with Marian even in the face of great danger.

Triumph

A final transformation of Robin’s leitmotif occurs at the very end of the film, when Robin and the Merry Men have returned King Richard to the throne, been granted pardons from their accused crimes, and when Richard permits Robin and Marian to marry. For these triumphant events, Korngold scores Robin’s theme in the strings as in the love scene, emphasizing the romance of Robin and Marian in its new-found freedom. Korngold also uses mainly major and minor chords within a single key rather than the dissonant half-diminished seventh, suggesting the stability of the situation with Richard once again as king. As the film winds down to its close, and the crowd cheers Robin and Marian as they leave the room, we hear this same version of Robin’s theme but with the brass instruments added as a final gesture of triumph.

Thus, far from merely signalling the Merry Men’s and Robin’s presence onscreen, these two leitmotifs follow the characters through their adventures, mirroring their physical and emotional states through the process of thematic transformation.

Coming soon… Thematic Transformation in ­Ben-Hur

From one point of view, the classic 1952 film musical Singin’ in the Rain is a comical take on Hollywood’s transition from the silent to the sound era in the late 1920s. But from another, it is an exploration of false exteriors covering a deeper truth beneath. The film opens, for instance, with fictional silent film star Don Lockwood (Gene Kelly) arriving at the premiere of his new film and recounting to the public how he got into show business and became such a success. In a witty montage depicting Don’s story, everything we see is precisely the opposite of what we hear Don telling the audience in a voice-over. There is also the whole premise of falsely presenting the voice of aspiring actress Kathy Selden (Debbie Reynolds) as that of Don’s co-star Lina Lamont (Jean Hagen) through overdubbing.

But another way this idea of false fronts plays out is through the romance that develops between Don and Kathy. A film music analysis of three numbers from the musical will demonstrate how the music participates in the transformation of Don’s expressions of love from the fictional to the factual world.

“You Were Meant for Me”

When Kathy first meets Don, she is not at all impressed by his status as a movie star. She sees Don and all movie actors as “nothing but a shadow on film, … not flesh and blood,” since “they don’t talk, they don’t act, they just make a lot of dumb show [i.e., pantomime].” Thus, she doesn’t see Don as being very real—quite the opposite. Kathy’s honesty gets to Don and is one of the reasons he falls in love with her.

A few weeks later, Don runs into Kathy again by chance at the film studios. Although he wants to tell her his feelings for her, he can’t bring himself to express them in the real world, and instead opts to go inside a studio, with artificial lighting, props, and scenery, then tell Kathy through the song “You Were Meant for Me”. Significantly, the song’s accompaniment is non-diegetic, which does not have a visible or implied source in the narrative world of the film. (In my last post, I discussed the difference between diegetic and non-diegetic music in film). In other words, it’s an unreal accompaniment played in the unreal environment of a Hollywood set. Thus, Don needs the false front of the studio set to reveal his love to Kathy.

Watch the number here:

The fact that Don is much more comfortable expressing love as a character in a fictional world is emphasized by his decision to replace one of his lines in The Duelling Cavalier simply with “I love you, I love you, I love you, I love you, I love you.” The contrast is striking—Don’s character says the words too many times while the real Don can’t bring himself to say them once in a direct manner.

“Singin’ in the Rain”

Later, in the famous “Singin’ in the Rain” number, Don kisses Kathy good night, and sings about his joy of being in love in an environment that is real in the film’s world—hence, the song’s carefree and upbeat sound. Yet at the same time, the extensive choreography of the number suggests that Don is treating that real environment as though it were a stage. In other words, there is still a very unreal aspect of Don’s expression here, and the music follows suit with its non-diegetic (i.e., unreal) accompaniment. In fact, the whole idea of singing in the rain precludes the possibility of having a “real” diegetic accompaniment at all. This unreal aspect is even heightened by the reactions of the other characters to Don’s singing and dancing: the limo driver, the policeman, the man he gives his umbrella to—all of these people are puzzled by Don’s joy of singing in the pouring rain. They all treat the environment as one normally would, for the purpose of driving a car on the road or walking down the sidewalk, and like most people, they also aren’t particularly pleased to be in the rain. Though Don is physically in the real world here, his behavior is still very much that of a performer on a stage.

View the number here:

“You Are My Lucky Star”

Finally, at the premiere of his new film, The Dancing Cavalier, Don sings of his love to Kathy for the first time in a song that is not part of a stagey performance, but is a spontaneous outburst of his affection. Accordingly, the plainly visible theater orchestra chimes in to accompany him, grounding the music in the real world of the diegesis in contrast with the scenes discussed above, which all have non-diegetic music. And this time, Don does not engage in any dance, and so treats his environment as one normally would in the real world. He has finally succeeded in overcoming his inability to express his true feelings to Kathy in a way that, at least for a musical, is lacking in artificiality. And as though to drive this point home, this is the scene in which Kathy is revealed as the real voice of Lina. Thus, both Don’s and Lina’s facades are removed and the truths revealed in this final scene.

Watch the scene below (“You Are My Lucky Star” begins at 1:57):